WHITE'S 
COURSE  IN  ART 


OUTLINE 


VOft 


TH    YEAR    GRADE 


WITH 


SUGGESTIONS    TO   TEACHERH 


BUT  TOWC  •;.  CtHCUfHATX  •:•  CHUOASW 

4HBRIOAK 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

SANTA  BARBARA 

COLLEGE 

PRESENTED  BY 

William  E.  Roberts 


, 


WHITE'S 
NEW   COURSE   IN  ART   INSTRUCTION 


OUTLINE 


FOR 


SIXTH    YEAR    GRADE 


WITH 


SUGGESTIONS    TO    TEACHERS 


NEW  YORK  •:•  CINCINNATI  •:•  CHICAGO 

AMERICAN    BOOK    COMPANY 


INTRODUCTORY. 

WHITE'S  NEW  COURSE  IN  ART  INSTRUCTION  is  not  the  result 
of  one  person's  thought;  nor  was  it,  primarily,  a  commercial 
venture.  It  embodies  the  ideas  of  many,  who,  starting  at  widely 
separated  points  and  working  individually  along  different  lines, 
arrived  almost  simultaneously  at  the  same  conclusions. 

In  some  respects  the  course  differs  from  all  others.  Its  chief 
points  of  departure  are  as  follows  : 

I.  It  is  based  on  an  analysis  of  the  entire  subject  of  Art  In- 
struction, from  which  have  been  derived  the  divisions  of  the  work 
and  the  outline  of  each  division.     These  divisions  are  natural  and 
not  artificial,  and  are  such  as  are  justified  by  established  usage. 

II.  Its  method  is  determined  by  the  laws  of  the  mind,  upon 
which  depend  all  correct  principles  of  teaching. 

III.  It  requires  the  pupil  to  do  his  own  thinking,  and  does  not 
permit  mere  copying  of  the  examples  in  the  books.     Geometrical 
work  is  done  intelligently  and  in  the  most  practical  manner  ;  the 
decorative  work  is  based  on  the  best  examples  extant,  while  the 
original  designs  demanded  from  the  pupils  are  never  beyond  their 
powers,  and  the  pictorial  drawing  is  done  from  objects  and  not 
from  copies. 

IV.  It  aims.,  by  presenting  an  abundance  of  illustration  taken 
from  nature  and  from  the  industrial  and  fine  arts,  both  historic 
and  modern,  to  lead  the  pupil  to  study  and  love  nature,  and  to 
acquaint  him  with  all  kinds  of  good  art ;  and  it  thus  endeavors 
to  lay  the  foundation  for  a  broad  art  culture. 

V.  It  provides   scope  for   the   individuality  of   teacher   and 
pupils.     Members  of  the  same  class  may  achieve  widely  different  • 
results,  and  yet  keep  within  the  lines  laid  down  in  the  course. 

COPYRIGHT,  1892,  BY 
AMERICAN  BOOK  COMPANY. 


[All  rights  reserved.] 


A/ 

SANTA  BARBARA  COLLEGE  L1BRA&Y 

\N 

69101 


UNIVERSITY  OP  CALIFORNIA 


WHITE'S 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS. 


MATERIALS   FOR   GRAMMAR   GRADES. 

To  secure  the  best  results,  each  class  should  be  supplied  with 
the  following  materials  : 

Models.  White's  drawing  models,  sets  Nos.  2  and  3,  pre- 
pared especially  for  this  course. 

Objects.  As  called  for  in  the  course.  So  far  as  possible,  each 
pupil  should  furnish  his  own. 

Draiving  Books.  White's  New  Course  in  Art  Instruction, 
one  number  each  year. 

No.  4,  for  fourth  year  in  school. 
No.  5,  for  fifth  year  in  school. 
No.  6,  for  sixth  year  in  school. 
No.  7,  for  seventh  year  in  school. 
No.  8,  for  eighth  year  in  school. 
No.  9,  for  ninth  year  in  school. 

Drawing  Paper.  This  should  be  of  good  quality  and  in  sheets 
9"  x  12".  That  supplied  by  the  American  Book  Company  is  pref- 
erable. 

(3) 


4  WHITE'S  NEW  COURSE  IN  ART  INSTRUCTION. 

Development  Paper.  "Oak  Tag"  of  medium  weight,  in 
sheets  9"  x  12". 

Colored  Papers.  Bradley 's  educational  colored  papers,  are 
required  to  complete  the  work  in  color,  as  outlined  in  this  course. 

Package  No.  4,  for  fourth  year. 

Package  No.  5,  for  fifth  year. 

Package  No.  6,  for  sixth  year. 

Package  No.  7,  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  years. 

Tracing  Paper.  Tissue  paper  of  good  quality  will  do, 
although  the  tracing  paper  used  by  designers  is  preferable.  One 
sheet  9"  x  12",  will  be  required  by  each  pupil  every  year. 

Pencils.  These  should  be  of  good  quality  and  medium  hard- 
ness. 

Erasers.     Flexible,  elastic  erasers  are  the  best. 

Rulers  or  Scales.  For  the  fourth  and  fifth  years,  Brad  ley's 
industrial  drawing  scales  are  recommended.  For  the  sixth, 
seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  years,  Bradley's  drawing  scales,  or 
architects'  triangular  scales,  will  be  found  most  satisfactory. 

Compasses.    White's  patent  drawing  compasses,  with  pencil. 

Scissors.  If  possible,  each  pupil  should  have  a  pair  of  sharp- 
pointed,  five-inch,  steel  scissors  of  fair  quality. 

Glue.  Each  pupil  should  have  a  bottle  of  liquid  glue,  for 
constructing  designs  and  objects  from  developments. 

Each  pupil  should  be  held  responsible  for  the  condition  of  his 
own  materials. 

THE   GRAMMAR  COURSE. 

In  this  course,  all  drawing  is  representation. 

Drawing  may  be  Geometric,  Decorative,  or  Pictorial  in  char- 
acter, according  to  the  class  of  facts  represented.  That  drawing, 
in  which  the  actual  form  and  structure  of  artificial  objects  are 
represented,  is  Geometric.  That  in  which  the  enrichment,  or 
decoration,  of  artificial  objects  is  represented,  and  that  which 
represents  units,  or  motives,  of  design,  whether  natural  or  arti- 
ficial, is  Decorative.  That  in  which  the  forms  of  objects  are 
represented  as  they  appear  from  one  point  of  view,  is  Pictorial. 

A  thorough  understanding  of  geometric  drawing  demands  a 
knowledge  of  measurement,  geometry,  projection,  and  develop- 


FOR  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS.  5 

ment.  A  just  appreciation  of  decorative  drawing  requires  some 
knowledge  of  color,  historic  ornament,  plant  form,  and  design  ; 
and,  if  the  pupil  is  to  apply  his  knowledge  of  color  in  design, 
some  facility  in  paper  cutting  is  necessary.  Accurate  knowledge 
of  pictorial  art,  and  appreciation  of  its  artistic  qualities,  are  gained 
by  a  study  of  the  principles  underlying  the  representation  of 
geometric  solids,  and  the  application  of  these  principles  in  the 
representation  of  natural  and  manufactured  objects. 
The  grammar  course,  therefore,  includes  a  study  of 

Measurement,  Color, 

Geometry,  Historic  Ornament, 

Working  Drawing,  Botanical  Drawing, 

Development,  Design, 

Paper  Cutting, 

Model  and  Object  Drawing. 

The  following  outline  presents  the  entire  grammar  course  in 
its  simplest  form. 

Each  vertical  column  shows  the  analysis  of  ons  of  the  ten 
divisions  of  representation.  The  Roman  numerals  at  the  left 
indicate  the  years  of  school  life,  and  each  horizontal  line  marks 
the  program  in  drawing  for  that  year.  The  drawing  books  are 
arranged  in  accordance  with  this  plan. 

The  teacher  should  familiarize  himself  with  this  outline,  and 
refer  to  it  frequently,  so  that  he  may  be  able  to  teach  better  that 
part  of  it  outlined  for  any  given  grade. 


WHITE'S  NEW  COURSE  IN  ART  INSTRUCTION. 

OUTLINE  OP   A   LOGICAL   COl'HSK    IN    ART 


GRADE 
OR 

GEOMETRIC 

DRAWING. 

IN 
SCHOOL. 

MEASUREMENT. 

GBOMETKY. 

WORKING 
DRAWING. 

DEVELOPMENT. 

IV  

Use  of  Rule. 

Classification  of 

Representation  of 

Equal  Plane  F:iri"- 

i" 

Rectilinear  Figs. 

Curved  Surfaces. 

at  right  angles. 

V  

Use  of  Rule. 

Unequal  Plane 

A" 

Curvilinear  and 
Mixtilinear  Figs. 
(Instrumental.) 

Curved  and  Plane 
Faces. 

Faces  at  right 
angles. 

VI  

Drawing  to  Scale. 

Simple  Geometric 

Representation  of 

Plane  and  Curved 

Half  size. 
Quarter  size. 

Problems. 

Invisible  Parts, 
Plane  Faces 
oblique  in  one 
view. 

Faces  combined. 

VII        

Drawing  to  Scale 

Plane  Faces  at 

1J»  =  1' 

Polygons. 

oblique  in  one 
and  two  views. 
Three  views. 

oblique  angles. 

VIII  

Drawing  to  Scale. 

Radiating  Flats. 

f»  =  1' 

cumscribing. 

oblique  in  two  or 
more  views. 
Sections—  parallel. 

IX  

Drawing  to  Scale 

Truncated  Radiat- 

lems. 
Tangents. 

Intersections. 

ing  Flats. 

FOR  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 
INSTRUCTION     FOR    GRAMMAR    SCHOOLS. 


DECORATIVE  DRAWING. 

PICTORIAL 

DRAWING. 

COLOB. 

HISTORIC 
ORNAMKNT. 

BOTANICAL 
DRAWING. 

DESK.X. 

PAPER 
CUTTING. 

MODEL  AND  OBJECT 
DRAWING. 

Ctiixitiflfti/iwi  l>[i 
1  'til  >t(f. 

Effect  of  Ditto  net  and 
Level. 

Scales  of  Color. 
Dominant  Har- 

Modified 
Geometric 

Drawings  of 
Seeds,  Buds, 

Modifica- 
tion of 

Mixtilinear 
Forms. 

Representation  of 
Solidity. 

uiony. 

Units. 

Fruits. 

Regular 

Geometric 

Units. 

Contrast. 

Unity. 

Strength. 

(  'lusxijirutidii  lit/ 

Valuta  i<v»</.)  ' 

Modifica- 
tion of 

Foreshortening  . 

Scales  of  Color. 
Dominant  Har- 
mony. 

Modified 
Bilateral 
Units. 

Leaves- 
entire 
margined. 

Bilateral 
Units. 
Variety. 
Rhythm. 

Bilateral 
Forms. 

Effect  of  Level. 

Repose. 

(7tixi~(iji-ti/ii>/i  inj 
Composition. 

Foreshortening 
Reviewed. 

Simpleand  Binary 

Conventional 

Leaves— 

Growth. 

Radial 

Concentric  Circles. 

Colors. 

Plant  Forms 

serrate, 

Strict  Con- 

Forms. 

Complementary 

llarinony. 

on  Radial 
Main  Lines. 

notched 
and  lobed. 
Flowers. 

ventionali- 
zation of 

Plant 

Forms. 

Convergence, 
a.  One  set  of  retreat- 
ing edges  bounding 
a  vertical  plane. 

b.  One  set   of  retreat- 

ing edges  bounding 

a  horizontal  plane. 

l'/<ix*itii",ti<in  In/ 

Convergence  (cont.) 

OompotlCn  (COM.) 

Two  sets  oi  retreat- 

Simple and  Binary 

Colors. 

Conventional 

Plant  Forms 

Compound 
Leaves. 

Growth. 
Free  Con- 

Radial 
Forms 

ing  edges, 
a.  At  equal  angles. 

Analogous  Har- 

on Bilateral 

ventionali- 

(cont.): 

b.  At  unequal  angles. 

mony. 

Main  Lines. 

zation  of 

Surface 

Plant 

Patterns. 

Forms. 

<'l<t*yiti<'<ition  by 

r>«  of  Diagonal*. 

Qualities. 

Natural  and  Ac- 

Conventional 

Spray-. 

Growth. 

Original 

a.  To  test  work. 

quired. 

Ornament 

Convention 

Forms. 

6.  To  find  centers. 

Analogous  liar-      on  Bilateral                              iili/ation 

mony  (cont.) 

Main  Lines. 

of  Sprays. 

l'/nxx(lifit/iiin  bij 

Relation  of  A.ic*. 

(Jtlllllliix  d-llllt.) 

a.  To  entire  mass  of 

Effects  of  Juxta- 

Conventional 

Whole               Growth. 

Original 

solid.—  Ovoidal. 

position. 

Ornament 

Plants. 

Conven- 

Forms. 

b.  To  one  face  of  solid. 

Perfected  Har- 

on Balanced 

tionaliza- 

—Conical. 

mony. 

Main  Lines. 

tion  of 

c.  To  two  faces  of 

Plants. 

solid.—  Cylindrical. 

d.  To  all  edges  of  solid. 

—Pyramidal. 

8 


WU1T&8  NEW  COURSE  IN  ART  INSTRUCTION 


GENERAL  REVIEW  OP  THE  STUDY  OP  FORM. 

A.—  SOLIDS. 

Sphere. 


/     pere.          pjat 

1.  Curvilinear  •<  Spheroids.  \ 

I  ,,  Long. 

\  Ovoid. 

f  Hemisphere. 
Cylinder. 

2.  Mixtilinear  <   Half-cylinder. 

Circular  Plinth. 
[  Cone. 


Prisms 


j  Triangular. 

3.  Rectilinear  •{  """"""„'.'"'    <  Square. 
Square  Plinth. 

Square  Pyramid. 


B.— GEOMETRIC  FIGURES.     Represent  plane  faces. 


2.  Mixtilinear 


3,  Rectilinear  - 


Circumference. 
Arc. 
Center;  foci. 

•  Diameter. 
Axis. 
Radius. 


iBase. 
Altitude. 
Apex. 
Isosceles, 

Equilateral. 

r\     -i        i  \  Diaeonal 

Quadrangles,  .............  -j  ,,..,1,,._ 


Oval. 


Semicircle. 


Square, 
Oblong, 
Rhombus, 
Rhomboid. 


I  Diameter. 


.  _  LINES.     Represent  outlines  or  edges. 


!  Circular. 
Elliptical. 
Oval. 


OUTLINE  FOR  SIXTH  YEAR.  9 

(  Horizontal. 

2.  Direction.        •]  Vertical. 

'  Oblique. 

3.  Relation.          \  Parallel-  i  Right  =  perpendicular. 

(  At  an  angle.  ,  . 

)  Oblique.     Acute" 
i  Obtuse. 

D. — POINTS.     Represent  corners ;  mark  positions. 

At  the  beginning  of  each  year,  review  the  entire  subject  of 
Form  as  here  outlined,  in  order  that  the  pupil  may  be  perfectly 
familiar  with  the  basis  of  the  year's  work. 


OUTLINE   OF   THE   SIXTH   YEAR'S   WORK. 

(THIKD  GRAMMAR  YEAR.) 

BOOK  "vi. 

(All  the  illustrations  referred  to  in  the  Outline  are  to  be  found  in  Book  VI.) 

1.  GEOMETRIC  DRAWING. 
I.  MEASUREMENT. 

Preliminary  work  (on  practice  paper) : 

The  ruler  and  ruling. — The  ruler  should  have  a  perfect  edge  and  be 
accurately  divided.  Great  caVe  should  be  taken  in  placing  the  ruler. 
The  points  between  which  the  line  is  to  be  drawn  should  not  be  cov- 
ered by  the  ruler,  but  a  little  allowance  should  be  made  for  the  space 
occupied  by  the  pencil-point.  The  light  should  always  shine  upon 
the  edge  against  which  the  line  is  to  be  ruled.  The  pen.cil  should 
be  held  nearly  upright,  and  the  line  drawn  from  left  to  right. 
Drill  in  use  of  ruler  : 

(a)  Rule  lines  through  two  given  points. 

(b)  Rule  heavy,  clearly  defined  lines. 

(c)  Rule  very  light  lines. 

(d)  Drill  in  marking  off  measurements  of  one  inch  from  left  to 

right  without  moving  the  ruler. 

(ey  Drill  in  marking  off  parts  of  an  inch  and  combinations,  as 
H",  2}",  I",  -ft",  etc. 

NOTE. — Insist  upon  accuracy  in  measuring  objects.  Give  frequent  practice 
in  judging  distances.  A  good  practice  is  drawing  to  scale,  making  objects 
half  size  and  quarter  size. 

NOTE. — All  this  work  is  to  be  taken  in  connection  with  other  lessons  in 
Geometric  Drawing. 


10  WHITE'S  NEW  COURSE  IN  ART  INSTRUCTION. 

II.  GEOMETRY.      Draw  the  problems  accurately  with  ruler  and  compasses. 
(For  illustrations,  see  page  7.) 

Preliminary  work  : 

Practice  with  compasses : 

(a)  Rule  three  horizontal  lines,  2£  inches  apart,  across  a  sheet  of 

practice  paper,  the  first  line  being  drawn  1^  indies  from  the 
top  margin.  Place  the  needle-point  on  the  first  line  mar 
the  left  end,  and  the  pencil-point  directly  below  the  needle- 
point.  With  radius  of  one  inch  describe  a  circle,  moving 
the  pencil-point  to  the  right  and  upward.  (Incline  the 
upper  end  of  the  compasses  a  little  in  the  direction  toward 
which  the  pencil-point  is  moving.)  Using  the  same  radius, 
draw  another  circle,  with  its  center  where  the  circumference 
of  the  first  circle  intersects  the  horizontal  line  on  the  right. 
Continue  this  exercise  across  the  page. 

(b)  On  the  second  line  draw  a  similar  series  of  circles,  moving 

the  pencil-point  toward  the  left. 

(e)  On  the  third  line  draw  circles,  using  alternately  the  move- 
ments described  in  a  and  b.  Repeat  this  exercise  many 
times,  in  order  that  the  pupils  may  acquire  skill  in  han- 
dling the  compasses  properly. 

(d)  Draw  concentric  circles  of  different  radii. 

Page  3.     Simple  Problems : 

a.  Draw  margin  lines  £"  from  the  edges  of  the  page. 

b.  Divide  the  space  into  six  egual  parts  (nearly  square). 

1.  Find  the  center  of  the  upper  left  space  by  means  of  diagonals, 

drawing  only  short  lines  intersecting  in  the  center.  Draw  con- 
centric circles  (see  Fig.  49)  with  the  following  radii :  1\",  1",  J", 

ir,  w,  t". 

2.  Find  the  center  of  the  upper  right  space.     Make  this  the  center 

of  a  circle  2£"  in  diameter.  Draw  a  horizontal  diameter  in  the 
circle  ;  mark  the  left  end  a,  and  the  right  end  b.  With  centers 
on  the  line  ab,  describe  circles  with  the  following  radii,  whose 
circumferences  shall  pass  through  point  a :  i",  •}£",  £",  1,V,  "• 
(See  Fig.  50.) 

8.  Find  the  center  of  the  remaining  upper  space.  Through  this  draw 
a  horizontal  2i{"  long;  mark  the  line  ab.  With  radius  of  1",  and 
center  on  line  ab,  describe  a  circle  whose  circumference  shall  pass 
through  a.  With  the  same  radius,  and  center  on  line  ab,  describe 
another  circle  whose  circumference  shall  pass  through  b.  Mark 
the  points  of  intersection  of  these  two  circumferences  c  and  d. 
Connect  points  c  and  d  by  a  vertical  line.  What  relation  does 
this  line  hold  to  the  horizontal  ab  ?  How  does  it  divide  ab  .'  Why  ''. 

4.  Teach:  To  bisect  a  line  or  arc.  (See  Figs.  52  and  53.)  Draw  the 
problem  in  the  lower  left  space. 


OUTLINE  FOR  SIXTH  YEAR.  11 

5.  Teach:  To  iHi-ide.  a  circle  into  sectors  of  180°,  90°,  45°,  60°,  and  30°. 

(See  Figs.  54,  55,  and  56.)     Diameter  of  circle  2J".     Draw  the 
problem  in  the  lower  middle  space. 

6.  Teach:  To  erect  a  perpendicular  at  the  end  of  a  line.    (See  Fig.  57.) 

Draw  the  problem  in  the  lower  right  space.     Length  of  hori- 
zontal, 2" ;  position,  J"  above  the  lower  margin. 

7.  Teach :  To  construct  a  square.    (See  Fig.  58.)    Construct  the  square 

on  the  same  line  as  the  previous  problem. 

Page  4.     Geometric  Enclosing  Forms  for  Designs. 

a.  Draw  margin  lines  as  before. 

-  b.   Draw  a  vertical  line  dividing  the  space  into  two  equal  parts. 
c.   Find  the  center  of  each  space. 

1.  In  the  left  space,  draw  Fig.  62,  G3,  64,  or  65,  enlarged  to  fill  a  space 

4"  square. 

2.  In  the  right  space,  draw  an  original  enclosing  form  for  a  radial 

design.     (Figs.  60  and  61  will  furnish  suggestions.) 

NOTE. — The  last  four  figures,  62  to  65,  may  be  practically  used  in  the  man- 
ual training  exercises — the  girls  embroidering  them  in  simple  outline 
stitch  on  small  linen  or  silk  squares  for  mats,  the  boys  cutting  them  in 
wood  for  reels  or  trays.  They  may  also  be  used  as  patterns  for  pen- 
wipers. 

SUGGESTIONS. 

Materials. 

The  materials  should  be  distributed,  in  good  condition,  before  the 
lesson.  Give  the  pupils  directions  for  handling  them  carefully. 
When  collected,  they  should  be  in  as  good  condition  as  when  distrib- 
uted. To  insure  care  in  the  distribution  and  collection,  reliable  pupils 
should  be  chosen  by  the  teacher  for  this  work.  The  teacher,  however, 
should  also  examine  instruments  at  intervals.  If  the  pupils  are  to 
be  trained  to  self-reliance,  carefulness  in  work,  and  the  assumption  of 
simple  responsibilities,  cadi  must  be  allowed  to  take  care  of  and  keep  in 
working  order  his  own  materials,  as  any  good  workman  keeps  his  tools. 

Tin-  pencils. — The  drawing  pencil  should  be  harder  than  medium  and  finely 
pointed.  The  compass  pencil,  also,  should  be  hard,  sharpened  to  a 
chisel  point,  and  so  adjusted  that  the  sharp  marking  edge  is  at  right 
angles  to  a  radius  of  any  described  arc. 

The  compasses  should  be  held  between  the  thumb  and  first  finger,  at 
the  end  above  the  rivet  and  hinge.  In  describing  arcs  they  may  be 
turned  either  to  the  left  or  right,  as  seems  necessary.  The  needle-point 
of  the  compasses  should  be  fine,  and  can  be  sharpened  with  a  file.  No 
holes  should  be  visible  in  the  paper  after  using  this  instrument;  but  if 
any  appear,  the  paper  should  be  smoothed  from  the  back  with  the 
thumb-nail. 


12  WHITE'S  NEW  COURSE  IN  ART  INSTRUCTION. 

Lines. 

Three  kinds  of  lines  are  employed  in  Geometric  Drawing.  The  worldncj 
lines  are  those  drawn  in  the  various  processes  to  obtniu  the  result. 
They  should  always  be  light,  but  distinct  and  of  uniform  thickness. 
All  working  lines  are  retained  in  the  finished  problem.  The  result  lines 
are  those  of  the  described  problem,  and  should  be  very  clearly  defined, 
rather  heavy,  and  of  uniform  thickness  and  color.  A  given  line  is  one 
of  fixed  dimensions  from  which  the  problem  is  worked.  It  should  be 
lighter  than  the  result  line  and  darker  than  the  working  line.  Intersec- 
tion of  lines  to  obtain  necessary  points  should  be  made  with  short 
fine  lines. 

Notation. 

All  successive  steps  in  the  process  of  solving  a  problem  may  be  figured 
from  1  upward,  and  each  result  obtained  lettered  A,  B,  etc.  If  this 
practice  is  uniformly  observed,  the  various  steps  in  the  construction  can 
easily  be  followed. 

Method  for  a  Class  Lesson. 

The  necessary  preparation. — The  problem  forming  the  subject  of  each 
lesson  should  be  previously  drawn  by  the  teacher  upon  the  blackboard, 
or  on  charts,  for  reference,  for  description,  and  for  study  before  the 
pupils  begin  the  work  upon  paper. 

How  to  conduct  the  lesson. — The  teacher  should  know  every  step  to  be 
taken,  and  should  draw  on  the  blackboard,  while  developing  the 
exercise.  The  charts  are  not  to  be  copied,  but  used  only  for  reference. 
By  the  use  of  a  chart  or  blackboard  representation,  the  children  see  the 
completed  work,  know  what  the  result  is  to  be,  learn  to  analyze  the 
method  of  construction,  and  are  enabled  to  discover  the  solution  for  them- 
selves. In  this  way  they  understand  the  whole  problem  and  the  use  of  the 
lines  to  obtain  it,  and  work  intelligently.  In  cases  where  it  is  possible, 
the  pupils  should  invent  processes  to  give  required  results. 

How  to  secure  a  certain  degree  of  excellence. — Exact  the  closest  attention 
from  the  pupils  when  giving  a  direction,  and  allow  no  one  to  work  when 
an  explanation  is  made.  Give  the  pupils  sufficient  time  for  work  ;  in 
Geometric  Drawing  no  new  step  can  be  taken  unless  the  previous  one 
has  been  finished  correctly.  By  proceeding  slowly,  excellent  and  uni- 
form class  work  can  be  procured,  and  all  discouraging  errors  avoided. 
Give  each  direction  slowly  and  distinctly  ;  make  sure  that  it  has  been 
understood,  and  avoid  unnecessary  repetition. 

NOTE. — Before  attempting  the  work  in  the  books,  draw  each  exercise  upon 
practice  paper,  in  order  to  avoid  mistakes  and  corrections,  and  insure 
nicety  of  execution  in  the  final  drawing. 


OUTLINE  FOR  SIXTH   TEAR.  13 

Solutions  of  Problems. 

PROBLEM  5.  —  Bisection  of  lines.  Draw  a  horizontal  line  24"  in  length. 
With  the  end  of  the  line  as  center,  and  a  radius  greater  than  half  the 
length  of  the  line,  draw  an  arc  to  intersect  the  line.  With  the  other 
end  of  the  line  as  center,  and  the  same  radius,  intersect  the  arc  above 
and  below  the  line.  Draw  a  straight  line  through  the  two  intersections. 
This  will  bisect  the  line  first  drawn. 
Follow  the  same  process  for  bisecting  arcs. 

NOTE.  —  To  bisect  an  angle.  (To  be  drawn  on  practice  paper.)  Draw  an  an- 
gle, A.  With  A,  the  vertex  of  the  angle,  as  center,  and  a  short  radius, 
draw  an  arc  intersecting  the  sides  at  points  1  and  2.  With  1  and  2  as  cen- 
ters, and  a  radius  greater  than  half  1,  2,  draw  arcs  intersecting  each  other 
at  point  3.  Draw  3  A,  which  will  bisect  angle  A. 


C.  —  Dirfxion  of  a  circle  into  sectors,  marking  upon  them  the 
number  of  degrees.  Draw  a  circle  with  IV  radius.  The  circumference 
of  every  circle  may  be  considered  as  containing  360°,  or  equal  parts. 
Mark  the  circumference  of  the  circle  thus:  300°.  Draw  the  diameter  of 
the  circle,  dividing  it  into  semicircles,  each  of  which  contains  180°.  Mark 
one  of  these  semicircles  thus:  180°. 

By  bisecting  the  arc  forming  one  of  the  semicircles,  and  drawing  a 
radius  from  the  point  of  bisection  to  the  center  of  the  circle,  a  sector 
of  90°  is  obtained.  Bisect  the  arc  of  the  sector  just  found  to  obtain  a 
sector  of  45°. 

With  the  radius  of  the  circle  as  radius,  and  one  end  of  the  diameter  as 
center,  draw  a  short  arc  cutting  the  circumference  of  the  circle.  Draw  a 
radius  from  this  point  to  the  center  of  the  circle.  Mark  the  small 
division  of  the  circle  60°,  and  the  large  division  120°.  The  radius  of 
any  circle  may  be  applied  six  times  to  its  circumference.  Test  this 
with  compasses. 

Bisect  the  arc  of  60°  to  obtain  sector  of  30°. 

PROBLEM  7.  —  To  erect  a  perpendicular  at  the  end  of  aline.  —  Draw  a  horizontal 
line,  A  B.  With  B  as  center,  and  a  short  radius,  draw  an  indefinite 
arc,  cutting  the  line  A  B  at  1.  With  1  as  center,  and  the  same  radius, 
intersect  the  arc  at  point  2.  With  2  as  center,  and  the  same  radius, 
intersect  the  arc  once  more  at  point  3.  .  With  2  and  3  as  centers,  and 
the  same  radius,  draw  arcs  intersecting  each  other  over  B  at  point  4. 
Draw  4  B,  which  will  be  the  required  perpendicular. 

PROBLEM  8.  —  To  construct  a  square.  —  (Base  given,  —  horizontal  line  A  B.  See 
previous  problem.)  Take  the  length  of  the  line  A  B  as  radius,  and  mark 
it  off  upon  the  perpendicular  at  point  C,  forming  two  sides  of  the  square. 
With  A  and  C  respectively  as  centers,  and  the  length  of  the  line  A  B  as 
radius,  describe  arcs  intersecting  each  other,  to  find  the  position  of  the 
fourth  angle  in  the  square.  Call  this  point  D.  Draw  lines  from  D  to  A 
and  C  respectively,  completing  the  square. 


14          WHITE'S  NEW  COURSE  IN  ART  INSTRUCTION. 

III.  WORKING  DRAWINGS.      Completed   drawings  to  be  instrumental. 
(For  illustrations,  see  pages  8  and  9.) 
Preliminary  work : 

Review  the  representation  of  visible  outlines  and  edges;  plan  and 
elevation;  kinds  of  lines  used,  viz.,  full  lines  representing  visible 
outlines  and  edges,  dotted  lines  representing  connecting  or  working 
lines,  dot-and-dash  lines  representing  center  lines,  or  axes. 

Teach  use  of  dash  lines,  to  repiasent  invisible  parts. 

Make  freehand  sketches  on  practice  paper,  or  blackl>oard,  of  two  views 
of  objects  like  a  hollow  cylinder  (Fig.  24),  or  the  square  plinth 
placed  on  a  cylinder  (Fig.  33),  or  similar  objects.  When  the  prin- 
ciples are  understood,  draw  accurately  with  instruments  in  the  book. 

Teach  term  foreshortened,  as  used  in  working  drawing.  Mnko  free- 
hand sketches  of  models,  so  placed  that  their  faces  are  foreshort- 
ened in  one  view  (Figs.  30  and  32);  or  of  the  half-cube  (Fig.  31). 

Teach  the  use  of  light  lines  with  arrow-points  to  indicate  dimensions. 
(See  Figs.  28  and  34.) 

NOTE. — In  Fig.  28,  between  the  two  arrow-points  at  the  top,  is  indicated  the 

width  of  the  spool  at  the  ends  thus,  < 4" >,  (four  inches)  ; 

the  height  of  the  spool  from  top  to  base  end,  thus,  < 8"  - 

(eight  inches).      The  arrow-point  should  be  placed  carefully,  to  indicate 
the  exact  extent  of  the  dimension. 

Page  5.     The  representation  of  invisible  outlines  and  edges. 

a.  Draw  margin  lines. 

b.  Draw  a  vertical  dividing  the  space  into  two  equal  parts. 

1.  Draw  two  views  of  a  hollow  cylinder. 

2.  Draw  two  views  of  some  object  having  invisible  outlines  ;  e.g.,  a 

washer,  a  section  of  drain-pipe,  or  a  glass  inkwell. 

Page  6.' 

a.  Draw  margin  lines. 

b.  Draw  a  vertical  dividing  the  space  into  two  equal  parts. 

1.  Make  a  freehand  sketch  of  some  object  having  invisible  parts;  e.g., 

a  spool,  or  a  square-headed  bolt.     Mark  dimensions. 

2.  Make  an  accurate  drawing  of  the  same  on  the  other  half-page. 

NOTE. — In  drawing  the  cube  to  represent  two  faces  equally  foreshortened,  as  in 
Fig.  30,  first  draw  the  base  (an  oblique  square)  ;  second,  draw  the  dotted 
lines  to  indicate  location  of  edges  in  the  foreshortened  view. 

Page  11. 

a.  Draw  margin  lines. 

1.  Draw  two  views  of  a  square  prism  turned  at  an  angle  (Fig.  36),  or 
of  some  object  similar  in  form,  or  draw  two  views  of  the  house- 
model  (Fig.  39).  Draw  two  views  of  the  tap-bolt  (Fig.  41),  or  of 
some  object  having  parts  foreshortened  in  one  view. 


OUTLINE  FOR  SIXTH  YEAR.  15 

IV.  DEVELOPMENT.     Drawing  to  be  instrumental.     (For  illustrations,  see 

page  10.) 
Preliminary  work : 

Make  freehand  sketches  of  the  flats  of  all  type  solids  which  illustrate 
the  conditions. 

NOTE. — During  this  and  succeeding  years,  the  pupils  should  work  out  all 
problems  in  Development  from  working  drawings  of  the  objects,  and  not 
from  the  objects  themselves.  In  this  way,  only,  will  Development  have 
an  educational  value  of  its  own,  not  found  in  Geometry  and  Projection. 

Page  12.     Plane  and  curved  faces,  combined. 

a.  Draw  margin  lines. 

b.  1|"  from  the  left  margin  line  and  If"  from  the  lower,  place  a  point. 

This  ]K)int  is  the  center  for  describing  the  arc  of  a  semicircle 
below  the  point.  Radius  of  arc,  1".  This  semicircle  is  the  plan 
of  a  half-cylinder  2"  x  4".  Draw  the  elevation  £"  above  the  plan. 

1.  Draw  accurately  the  flat  of  this  half-cylinder.     Place  the  center 

for  the  lower  semicircular  end  1J-"  from  the  right  margin  and 
If"  from  the  lower  margin.  Draw  a  semicircle  of  1"  radius,  hav- 
ing its  straight  side  uppermost.  On  this  side  as  a  base,  draw  an 
oblong  2"  x  4"  and  complete  the  development. 

2.  Construct  the  object,  using  development  paper. 

Page  13.     Application. 

a.  On  a  sheet  of  practice  paper  make  a  working  drawing  of  one  ob- 

ject shown  on  page  10  (Fig.  10,  11,  or  12),  enlarged  to  twice  the 
size  of  the  drawing  in  the  book. 

b.  Draw  margin  lines. 

c.  Plan  the  placing  of  the  drawing  so  that  the  page  will  look  well 

when  finished. 

1.  Draw  the  flat  of  the  selected  object. 

2.  Construct,  using  development  paper. 

NOTE. — Call  the  attention  of  the  pupils  to  the  construction  of  stove-pipes,  tin 
pails  and  boxes,  and  other  similar  household  articles.  The  principles 
involved  in  their  construction  are  the  same  as  those  underlying  this  work 
in  Development. 

SUGGESTIONS. 

Method  of  Developing  the  Surface  of  the  Half-Cylinder. 

Draw  an  oblong  2"x4".  With  1"  radius  describe  a  semicircle  on  each 
short  end  as  a  base.  The  plane  oblong  face  and  the  two  semicircular 
faces  are  now  drawn.  Divide  the  circumference  of  one  semicircular  base 
into  any  number  of  equal  parts,  say  eight.  Extend  the  short  sides  of 
the  oblong  indefinitely  toward  the  left,  and  mark  off  on  each  as  many 
equal  and  similar  parts  as  there  are  in  the  circumference  of  the  semi- 
circle representing  the  base. 


16          WHITE'S  NEW  COURSE  IN  ART  INSTRUCTION. 

The  length  of  the  circumference  is  thus  set  off  on  the  straight  linos.  A 
vertical  line  connecting  the  last  points  at  the  left  will  complete  the 
oblong  representing  the  curved  face  of  the  half -cylinder.  Draw  the  laps 
on  the  upper,  lower,  and  left  edges  of  the  extended  oblong.  (See  illus- 
tration in  drawing  book.)  This  completes  the  drawing  of  the  flat.  Cut 
out  the  flat  in  one  piece. 

Before  folding,  mark  with  a  pin  on  all  lines  for  folding.  These  marks 
on  the  outside  of  the  fold  prevent  the  paper  from  breaking  irregularly. 

To  construct  the  half-cylinder  from  the  flat,  fold  on  the  bases  of  the 
semicircles,  on  the  line  dividing  the  two  oblongs,  and  on  the  outlines 
of  the  second  oblong  and  laps  ;  glue  the  lap  at  the  straight  edge  of  the 
half-cylinder,  then  the  laps  at  the  bases. 

NOTE. — A  similar  method  should  be  followed  in  developing  the  surface  of  any 
cylindrical  or  semi-cylindrical  object.  If  the  bases  are  complete  circles, 
at  least  twelve  divisions  should  be  set  off  on  the  circumferences  ;  sixteen 
divisions  will  insure  still  more  accurate  work.  Even  with  sixteen  divisions 
some  allowance  should  be  made  when  setting  off  similar  divisions  on  a 
straight  line  ;  for  the  distances  so  set  off  correspond  in  length  with  sixteen 
equal  chords,  not  with  the  sixteen  equal  arcs  which  they  subtend. 


2.  DECORATIVE  DRAWING. 
V.  COLOR. 

Preliminary  work : 

Review  the  previous  work  in  color,  especially  the  spectrum  standard 
colors. 

Teach :  Classification  by  composition. 

By  means  of  the  color  wheel,  show  that  the  six  standard  colors,  R., 
O.,  Y.,  G.,  B.,  V.,  are  simple  or  primary  colors;  that  while  an 
orange  color  may  be  produced  by  mingling  rays  of  light  from  red 
and  yellow  disks,  the  standard  orange  of  the  spectrum  cannot  be 
thus  obtained.  (The  same  is  true  if  pigments  are  mixed  to  produce 
orange.)  Show  that  the  mingling  of  blue  and  yellow  light  produces 
gray,  not  green;  and  of  red  and  blue  light,  purple,  not  violet. 

By  further  use  of  the  wheel,  show  that  the  intermediate  hues  may  be 
imitated  by  mingling  rays  of  light  from  the  primary  colors,  and 
that  these  hues  are  the  true  binary,  or  secondary,  colors. 

Show  that  when  a  primary  color  is  mingled  with  a  certain  binary,  gray 
is  produced.  The  pairs  are  R.  and  E.G.,  0.  and  G.B.,  Y.  and  V.B., 
G.  and  V.R.,  B.  and  O.Y.,  V.  and  G.Y.  Two  colors  which,  when 
mingled,  produce  gray  are  complementary  colors. 

Study  nature  to  discover  complementary  colors. 

Learn  the  six  pairs  of  complementary  colors. 


OUTLINE  FOE  SIXTH  YEAR,  17 

Pages  20  and  34. 

Make  arrangements  on  these  pages  with  colored  paper  figures, — 
squares,  oblongs,  circles, — illustrating  complementary  colors.  For 
example,  select  the  six  pairs  of  complementary  color  tablets  and 
arrange  them  in  six  squares,  properly  spaced,  on  page  20.  Or,  on 
page  34,  arrange  six  oblongs  of  color,  each  of  which  shall  contain  a 
pair  of  complementary  colors  and  a  harmonizing  neutral. 

NOTE. — An  exercise  like  the  last  will  reveal  the  fact  that  no  tone  is  truly 
neutral,  and  that  even  tones  of  gray  exert  some  influence  on  adjacent 
colors.     But  such   tones  are   more  easily  influenced  than  the  spectrum 
colors,  and  are  therefore  relatively  passive  or  neutral. 
Apply  Color  in  Historic  Ornament  and  Design. 


VI.   HISTORIC  ORNAMENT.     Drawing  to  be  either  instrumental  or  free- 
hand, as  convenient.     (For  illustrations,  see  page  15.) 
Preliminary  work : 

Study  the  illustrations  given  on  pages  15  and  16  in  the  drawing 
book.  Discover  that  these  forms  suggest  leaves  and  flowers. 
What  leaves  and  flowers  ?  (In  Fig.  26,  a  pond  lily  partly  open — 
the  lotus;  Fig.  29,  the  wild  red  lily;  Fig.  31,  leaves  of  box;  Fig. 
32,  the  rudbeckia;  Fig.  35,  loosestrife;  Fig.  38u,  leaves  of  bedstraw; 
Fig.  43,  wild  rose,  etc.) 

What  changes  have  been  made  in  the  natural  forms?  Teach,  from 
the  illustrations  on  page  16,  what  is  meant  by  Conventionalization. 
Take,  for  example,  the  violet  leaf  (Fig.  66).  Have  a  specimen  of  the 
violet  leaf  in  class,  and  from  this  specimen  and  the  unconvention- 
alized  drawing,  make  the  following  observations  :  The  margin  is 
serrated,  the  midrib  and  stem  are  curving,  the  left  and  right  halves 
are  not  of  the  same  shape  and  size,  and  the  leaf  has  many  veins. 
The  conventional  drawing  of  the  same  has  an  entire  or  unbroken 
margin,  the  midrib  and  stem  are  straight,  the  left  and  right  halves 
are  of  the  same  size  and  shape,  and  the  venation  is  almost  entirely 
omitted.  In  the  same  manner,  study  the  difference  between  the 
leaves  and  the  conventional  drawing  of  the  red-top  sorrel  (Fig.  69), 
or  any  other  leaves  and  drawings  familiarly  known,  before  making 
any  generalization  as  to  what  constitutes  conventionalization. 
(See  "  Illustrated  Definitions.") 

Page  14.     Sfrictly  conventionalized  plant  forms. 

a.  Draw  margin  lines. 

b.  Find  a  point  *>|"  from  lx>th  the  upper  and  right  margin  line,  and 

with  this  point  as  center,  and  radius  of  2^'  ,  describe  a  circle. 

c.  At  the  left  of  this  circle,  draw  an  oblong  2|"  x  5£",  properly  placed 

between  the  circle  and  the  left  margin. 

1.  Enlarge  Fig.  26,  28,  30,  or  31,  to  fill  the  oblong. 

2.  Enlarge  Fig.  32,  33,  35,  36,  37,  or  43,  to  fill  the  circle. 


18         WHITE'S  NEW  COURSE  IN  ART  INSTRUCTION. 

Page  17. 

a.  Select  an  historic  border  to  be  enlarged. 

b.  Lay  out  the  drawing;  i.e.,  determine  how  many  times  a  given  unit 

can  be  repeated,  how  wide  the  border  shall  be,  and  where  on  the 
page  the  drawing  will  appear  best.  For  example,  the  two  alter- 
nated units  in  Fig.  41,  enlarged  to  eight  times  their  present  size, 
will  fill  an  oblong  5"  wide.  Two  and  one  half  units  of  each  kind 
will  give  a  length  of  81'-' ;  while  three  of  each  would  require  too 
much  space  to  look  well  on  the  page.  An  oblong  5"  x  SI",  placed 
centrally  on  the  page  without  margin  lines,  will  look  well,  and 
the  drawing  should,  therefore,  be  laid  out  in  this  manner. 
1.  Select  a  border  (38A,  88n,  39,  40,  41,  or  42),  and  enlarge  it  to 
properly  fill  a  page  ;  draw  it  upon  practice  paper,  and,  when  well 
studied,  draw  it  upon  page  17. 

SUGGESTIONS. 
Lessons. 

Make  these  lessons  on  Historic  Ornament  interesting  by  comparing  simi- 
lar units  from  different  sources,  and  by  reference  to  the  history  of  the 
countries  where  the  styles  of  ornament  originated,  and  to  the  men  who 
helped  develop  the  style.  Such  books  as  Warnum's  "  Analysis  of  Orna- 
ment," Jones's  "  Grammar  of  Ornament,"  Goodyear's  "History  of  Art," 
and  others  will  be  of  great  assistance  in  such  study. 

Illustrations  of  Historic  Ornament. 

Fig.  25.  This  is  an  Egyptian  border  from  the  wall  of  a  tomb,  Gourna. 
The  conventional  form  of  the  lotus  flower,  front  view,  side  view,  and 
bud,  are  here  used. 

Fig.  26.  A  border  of  lotus  flowers,  from  a  mummy  case  in  the  British 
Museum. 

Fig.  27.  This  illustration  is  a  ground  decoration,  or  surface  pattern, 
from  the  ceiling  of  a  tomb  at  Thebes.  Each  circle  is  formed  of  four 
lotus  flowers  and  four  buds,  and  the  intermediate  figure  is  probably 
intended  to  suggest  four  sprouting  lotus  leaves. 

Fig.  28.  This  is  a  Greek  border,  taken  from  a  vase  decoration  in  the 
British  Museum,  the  Greek  rosette  constituting  the  unit  in  the  design. 
The  design  when  placed  in  a  horizontal  position  illustrates  repose  in  a 
high  degree.  The  small  circles  alternating  with  the  rosette  give  variety, 
and  relieve  the  design  from  monotony. 

Fig.  29.  This  is  the  Greek  Anthemion  border.  The  forms  of  leafage  and 
flower  are  so  freely  conventionalized,  that  it  is  difficult  to  recognize  any 
resemblance  to  the  natural  forms.  Some  authorities  think  the  forms 
are  derived  from  the  honeysuckle  and  lily,  others  from  the  palmetto 


OUTLINE  FOR  StXTB  TEAR.  19 

and  lotus  ;  while  others  believe  that  the  units  are  simply  combinations 
of  brush  marks  illustrating  the  three  general  laws  reigning  in  plant  life 
— radiation  from  the  parent  stem,  proportionate  distribution  of  areas, 
and  tangential  union  of  lines. 

Fig.  30.  This  illustration  is  a  Greek  border,  taken  from  a  vase  in  the 
British  Museum.  Repose  is  obtained  by  the  apposition  of  the  outer 
curves  in  opposite  leaves.  They  form  an  almost  complete  ellipse. 

Fig.  31.  This  is  a  Greek  border,  taken  from  a  vase  in  the  Louvre.  The 
stems,  supporting  berries,  grow  out  of  the  parent  stem  in  tangential 
curves.  It  is  called  by  some  the  Laurel  border. 

Fig.  32.  This  is  a  Greek  form  of  rosette.  It  is  found  in  Greek  borders 
surrounded  by  a  square,  a  part  of  an  imperfect  fret — that  is,  one  not 
forming  a  continuous  meander. 

Fig.  33.  This  is  a  Roman  rosette.  It  is  a  conventional  drawing  of  a  six- 
petaled  flower  form,  which  often  occurs  in  Roman  friezes,  at  ends  of 
scrolls,  or  encircled  by  them. 

Fig.  34.  This  is  a  Roman  border,  representing  a  blocked-out  treatment 
of  the  soft  acanthus,  a  leaf  constantly  used  by  Roman  artists  for  the 
enrichment  of  various  scrolls,  employed  in  their  designs. 

Figs.  35,  36,  and  37.  These  are  simple  rosettes,  found  in  borders,  consist- 
ing of  a  fret  form  alternated  with  a  rosette. 

Fig.  38A.  This  border  is  Byzantine,  and  is  taken  from  the  mosaics  from 
St.  Sophia,  Constantinople,  sixth  century. 

Fig.  38n.     This  illustration  is  also  Byzantine. 

Figs.  39  and  40.  Moorish  ornaments  from  the  Alhambra.  A  principal 
feature  of  Moorish  design  is  the  repetition  of  a  few  simple  elements, 
by  means  of  which  beautiful  and  complicated  effects  are  produced. 

Fig.  41.     This  is  a  Moorish  sculptured  ornament  in  low  relief. 

Fig.  42.  This  is  a  Gothic  border  composed  of  flat  ornamental  units 
derived  from  the  English  dog-tooth  ;  a  conventional  sculptured  orna- 
ment having  the  form  of  a  very  short  pyramid  with  an  indented  base. 

Fig.  43.     This  is  a  Gothic  rosette — the  Tudor  Rose. 


VII.  BOTA'NICAL   DRAWING.     (For  illustrations,  see  page  16.) 
Preliminary  work : 

Make  collections  of  serrate,  notched,  and  lobed  leaves,  and  regular 
flowers.  Make  close  observation  of  their  chief  characteristics ; 
sketch  on  practice  paper  and  blackboard.  Study  the  drawings  on 
page  16,  to  learn  the  essential  parts  to  be  represented  and  how  to 
draw  them. 


20          WHITE'S  NEW  COURSE  IN  ART  INSTRUCTION. 

Page  18.     Natural  forms  of  leaves  and  flowers. 

a.  Draw  margin  lines. 

b.  Plan  the  page  to  receive  drawings  of  two  leaves,  a  serrate  and  a 

lobed  ;  or  two  leaves  and  a  flower  ;  or  a  lobed  leaf  and  a  flower. 
1.  Make  the  drawings  from  the  natural  forms. 

Page  19.     Conventional  forms  of  leaves  and  flowers. 
«          a.  Review  conventionalization.     (See  "Historic  Ornament.") 

b.  Conventionalize  the  natural  forms  drawn  on  page  18.     For  sug- 
gestions, see  pages  16  and  21  of  drawing  book.    Draw  on  practice 
paper.     Repeat  until  the  conventional  forms  are  satisfactory. 
1.  Draw  the  conventional  forms  on  page  19. 

SUGGESTIONS. 
Leaf  Drawing. 

In  drawing  a  leaf,  first  determine  the  entire  width  and  length  of  the  leaf, 
and  indicate  them  on  the  page.  Then  indicate  the  position  and  general 
curve  of  the  midrib  and  sketch  the  outline  of  the  leaf.  Study  the 
curvature  and  radiation  of  the  veins,  and  sketch  the  principal  veins 
only.  Erase  incorrect  lines,  and  reduce  the  others  until  they  arc 
almost  invisible.  Line  in  with  a  line  expressive  of  leaf  character,  add- 
ing such  delicate  veins  and  other  details  as  may  be  required.  The  ideal 
drawing  is  perfect  in  form,  delicate  in  handling,  untouched  by  an 
eraser. 

Illustrations  of  Leaves. 

Fig.  36.  Pepperbush.  The  leaves  are  wedge-shaped,  sharply  serrate,  and 
prominently  straight-veined.  Found  in  wet  copses,  Maine  to  Virginia, 
near  the  coast. 

Fig.  37.  White  birch.  The  leaves  are  triangular,  tapering  to  a  very  sharp 
point  (usually  abruptly),  and  truncate,  or  nearly  so,  at  the  broad  l>aso; 
they  have  slender  petioles,  finely  serrr.te  notches,  and  pinnately-nctted 
venation. 

Fig.  38.  Common  white  water-crowfoot.  The  leaves  of  this  plant  grow 
under  water  ;  most  of  them  are  petioled,  the  petiole  being  rather  nar- 
rowly dilated.  The  blades  are  ternately  lobed  and  irregularly  notched. 
The  venation  is  pinnate.  Common  in  slow  flowing  water. 

Fig.  39.  Three-leaved  goldthread.  The  leaflets  are  obovate- wedge-form, 
sharply  toothed,  and  obscurely  three-lobed.  The  leaf  is  evergreen  ami 
shining,  and  the  roots  have  long,  bright  yellow,  bitter  fibers. 

Fig.  39A.  Currant.  The  leaves  are  heart-shaped  at  base,  three  and  five- 
lobed,  smooth.  The  lobes  are  ovate  ;  the  margin  is  doubly  serrate,  with 
acute  notches  ;  the  venation  is  palmate. 

Fig.  66.  Common  blue  violet.  The  leaves  are  roundish-cordate  or 
reniform,  with  crenate  margin;  the  sides  are  rolled  inward  when  young; 
the  venation  is  palmate. 


OUTLINE  FOR  SIXTH   TEAR.  21 

Fig.  67.  Climbing  false  buckwheat.  The  leaves  are  heart-shaped,  or 
slightly  halberd-shaped,  and  pointed,  with  entire  margins  and  pinnate 
venation.  The  long,  slender,  twining  stems  fit  the  plant  particularly 
for  designs  in  borders. 

Fig.  68.  Meadow  rue.  The  leaves  are  alternate,  two  and  three  ternately 
compound.  The  divisions  and  leaflets  are  stalked  ;  and  the  petioles 
dilated  at  the  base.  The  illustration  represents  only  a  leaflet.  The 
leaflet  is  lobed  and  palmately  veined,  and  is  well  adapted  for  radial 
designs,  but  may  also  be  used  for  borders. 

Fig.  69.  Sheep  sorrel.  The  leaves  have  an  entire  margin  and  are  narrow, 
lanceolate  or  linear,  halberd-shaped  at  base,  and  finely  reticulated. 

Fig.  70.  Lion's  foot.  The  leaves  are  mostly  deltoid,  and  variously 
three  to  seven-lobed. 

Fig.  71.     Sassafras  flower. 

Fig.  71  A.     Sassafras  flower  conventionalized. 

Fig.  72.     Stonecrop  flower. 

Fig.  72A.     Stonecrop  flower  conventionalized. 

Observation  Lessons. 

By  the  analysis  of  various  plants,  teach  the  children  to  observe  the 
following  common  facts  of  plant  life:  The  root  is  the  base  of  the 
plant.  The  stem  springs  from  the  root,  dividing  and  subdividing, 
and  bearing  all  the  other  parts  ;  or,  all  the  other  parts  spring  from 
a  common  root-stalk.  The  stems  may  spread  loosely,  turn  or  bend 
over  on  one  side,  recline  on  the  ground,  creep  (strike  root  as  they 
grow),  climb  (cling  to  other  objects  as  they  grow),  and  twine,  or  coil, 
themselves  spirally  around  other  stems  for  support. 

The  arrangement  of  leaves  on  the  stem  may  be  alternate,  when  the 
leaves  follow  one  afteV-  another,  with  but  a  single  leaf  from  each 
joint  in  the  stem  ;  opposite,  when  the  leaves  are  in  pairs  on  each 
joint  of  the  stem,  the  two  leaves  being  exactly  opposite  to  each 
other  ;  whorled,  when  three  or  more  leaves  are  in  a  circle  on  one 
joint  of  stem  ;  perfoliate,  when  the  edges  of  the  base  of  the  leaf  are 
united  with  each  other  around  the  stem.  Some  leaves  have  petioles, 
or  stems,  and  others  have  none.  In  some  cases,  there  is  a  pair  of 
stipules,  or  small  appendages,  at  the  base  of  the  petiole. 

In  the  position  or  arrangement  of  the  flowers,  notice  whether  the 
blossoms  terminate  a  stem  or  arc  in  the  axils  of  leaves  ;  whether 
they  are  single  or  in  clusters  ;  whether  the  flower  clusters  are  found 
along  the  sides  of  the  stem,  well  removed  from  each  other,  or  spring 
apparently  fuom  the  same  point  :  whether  the  flowers  have  pedicels 
or  are  sessile,  and  such  other  points  as  will  be  necessary,  without 
especially  going  into  botanical  technicalities,  fur  I  lie  future  adapta- 
tion of  the  plant  for  design. 

^ UNIVERSITY  OP  CALIFORNIA 
SANTA  BARBARA  COLLEGE  LIBRA* 


22  WHITE1 8  NEW  COURSE  IN  ART  INSTRUCTION. 

VIII.     DESIGN.      To  be    either  instrumental  or  freehand,  as  convenient. 

(For  illustrations,  see  pages  21  and  22.) 

Preliminary  work : 

Study  pages  21  and  22  of  the  drawing-book.  Notice  the  three  kinds 
of  designs:  borders  (77,  78,  and  79);  surfaces  (80,  81,  82,  83,  84,  and 
85 — some  with  main  lines  only);  centers  (86,  87,  88,  89,  and  90). 
Notice  the  different  shapes  of  fields  or  grounds,  and  the  different 
margins  (plain,  Fig.  87 ;  ornamental,  Fig.  90).  Give  special  atten- 
tion to  the  main  lines,  which  give  character  to  the  design.  Com- 
pare the  various  main  lines  given  in  Fig.  76.  Sketch,  on  praotir" 
paper,  the  main  lines  of  Figs.  78  and  79 ;  also  of  Fig.  90.  Teach 
thoroughly  the  method  of  developing  the  drawing. 
By  observation  of  plant  growth,  as  well  as  by  the  study  of  good 
examples  of  design,  lead  the  children  to  perceive  that  all  good 
design,  with  the  exception  of  that  purely  geometric,  is  based  upon 
the  great  law  of  plant  growth, — Radiation  from  a  parent  stem  or 
root-stalk,— and  that  the  articulation  of  the  branches  of  the  plant 
must  be  represented  in  the  design,  by  means  of  the  tangential 
curvature  of  main  lines. 

The  characteristics  of  leaves  and  flowers,  common  to  the  general  type 
of  plant,  must  also  be  adhered  to  in  the  design. 

Page  23. 

Draw  margin  lines.  Draw  Fig.  85  (omitting  the  two  right-hand  units) 
enlarged  to  three  times  its  present  size  ;  or  select  one  of  the  radial 
designs  (Figs.  86  to  90)  and  enlarge  it  to  properly  fill  the  page.  If 
too  difficult,  the  half-tinting  in  these  latter  designs  may  be  omitted. 

Page  24.     Original  design. 

Draw  an  original  design,  using  the  natural  forms  previously  drawn 
and  conventionalized. 

SUGGESTIONS. 
Order  of  Steps  in  Original  Design. 

a.  Decide  upon  the  kind  of  design  to  be  made — border,  surface,  or 

center. 

b.  Sketch  the  field  for  the  design  on  practice  paper. 

c.  Sketch  the  main  lines,  remembering  that  they  must  have  a  proper 

growth,  radiation,  and  tangency. 

d.  Clothe  them  with  the  conventional  units,  bearing  in  mind  the  fol- 

lowing points : 

(1)  A  proper  arrangement  of  parts.    The  growth  must  be  orderly. 

Each  part  must  have  an  evident  and  natural  source  of 
growth.  Leaves  should  not  appear  to  grow  from  leaves, 
nor  flowers  from  leaves  or  from  other  flowers. 

(2)  A  proper  balance  of  parts.      To  secure  this,  the  important 

masses  of  the  design  must  be  arranged  on  a  symmetrical 
basis,  whether  the  design  is  bi-symmetric  or  otherwise. 


OUTLINE  FOR  SIXTH  TEAR.  23 

(3)  A  proper  distribution  of  parts.  As  a  rule,  good  judgment 
will  be  a  sufficient  guide  in  the  disposition  of  the  elements 
of  a  design.  They  should  be  so  distributed  as  to  form  a  well- 
balanced  whole,  constructed  and  arranged  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  produce  an  harmonious  effect.  To  this  end,  care 
must  be  taken  that  the  field  of  the  design  shall  not  be  too 
crowded  with  decoration  in  one  part,  and  too  open  in 
another,  but  that  a  certain  decorum  and  balance  shall  be 
preserved  throughout. 
e.  Correct ;  redraw  until  satisinctory. 


IX.  PAPER  CUTTING. 

Preliminary  ivork : 

Practice  cutting  bilateral  units. 

Page  25. 

Upon  this  page,  construct  an  original  design,  using  colored  papers  to 
illustrate  complementary  harmony. 

NOTE  ON  COLOR. — As  the  form  of  the  design  is  not  known,  no  explicit  direc- 
tions can  be  given,  but  the  following  general  rules  should  be  observed  :  1. 
Select  the  complementary  colors  with  great  care.  2.  Do  not  use  two  full 
spectrum  colors,  as  tints  and  shades  will  give  a  better  effect.  3.  Use  a 
neutral  color  somewhere  in  the  design,  either  for  the  background  or  for 
some  other  part. 

NOTE  ON  PAPER  CUTTING. — The  surest  way  for  inexperienced  pupils  to  obtain 
good  paper  units  is,  first  to  cut  a  pattern  unit  from  thick  manilla 
paper.  The  other  units  can  then  be  traced  from  this  and  cut  accu- 
rately. If  the  pupil  has  good  scissors  and  some  facility  in  cutting, 
the  colored  paper  may  be  folded  so  that  four,  five,  or  six  units  can  be  cut 
at  once.  If  the  design  is  radial,  the  paper  may  be  so  folded,  that  the  entire 
design,  with  the  exception  of  the  margin,  can  be  cut  out  in  one  piece. 

Cut  as  many  parts  as  possible  at  one  time  ;  e.  g.,  cut  both  sides  of  a 
bilateral  unit  ;  the  opposite  sides  of  a  central  unit  ;  all  the  sides  of  the 
enclosing  form  in  a  radial  design  ;  the  opposite  margins  in  a  border,  etc. 


3.  PICTORIAL  DRAWING. 

X.  MODEL   AND   OBJECT   DRAWING.     To  be  entirely  freehand.     (For 

illustrations,  see  pages  27-30.) 
Preliminary  work  : 

Continue  practice  in  observing  the  characteristics  of  masses  and  in 
making  proportional  measurements.    Review  drawing  the  cylinder. 
On  practice  paper,  draw  the  hollow  cylinder.   (See  Fig.  30  for  arrange- 
ment of  the  sheet.)     The  representation  of  the  concentric  circles  at 
the  top  will  require  accurate  observation  and  skillful  drawing. 


24          WHITE'S  NEW  COURSE  IN  ART  INSTRUCTION. 

Page  26.     Object*  with  concentric  circles. 

a.  Draw  margin  lines. 

b.  Divide  the  space,  by  a  vertical  line,  into  two  equal  parts. 

1.  Draw,  in  the  left-hand  space,   the  picture  of  a  hollow  cylinder, 

standing  upon  a  plane  surface  below  the  level  of  the  eye. 

2.  Draw,  in  the  right-hand  space,  the  picture  of  some  object,  like  (i 

wide-mouthed  bottle  or  a  vase,  standing  on  a  plane  surface  below 
the  level  of  the  eye. 

NOTE. — If  preferable,  do  not  divide  the  space,  but  draw  some  object  like  Fig. 
31  or  32,  instead  of  taking  the  two  objects  suggested. 

Page  31.     Convergence. 

a.  Study  objects  to  discover  the  apparent  convergence  of  retreating 

parallel  edges. 

b.  Review  drawing  the  cylinder.    Make  a  careful  drawing,  on  practice 

paper,  of  an  upright  cylinder  below  the  level  of  the  eye,  repre- 
senting even  the  invisible  edge  of  the  base  ;  divide  the  cylinder 
into  two  equal  parts,  as  shown  in  Pig.  34.  The  straight  lines 
representing  the  retreating  edges  will  be  found  to  converge. 

c.  Sketch  the  cube  on  practice  paper,  in  the  position  indicated  in 

Fig.  38. 

d.  Draw  the  margin  lines  on^page  31,  and  divide  the  space,  by  a  ver- 

tical line,  into  two  equal  parts. 

1.  On  the  left  hall  of  the  page,  draw  the  picture  of  a  half-cylinder, 

or  similar  object,  standing  upon  a  plane  surface  below  the  level 
of  the  eye. 

2.  On  the  right  half  of  the  page,  draw  the  picture  of  a  cube,  or  similar 

object,  with  one  face  foreshortened,  standing  upon  a  plane  surface 
below  the  level  of  the  eye. 

Page  32. 

a.  Study  the  cube  in  the  position  indicated  in  Fig.  42,  and  sketch  on 

practice  paper. 

b.  Draw  the  margin  lines. 

c.  Divide  the  space  into  two  equal  parts,  by  means  of  a  vertical  line. 

1.  Draw  the  picture  of  a  cube  with  two  faces  equally  foreshortened, 

standing  upon  a  plane  surface  below  the  eye. 

2.  Draw  the  picture  of  a  cubical  object  under  similar  conditions. 

Page  33.     Group. 

Upon  this  page,  a  drawing  is  to  be  made  of  a  simple  group  containing 
at  least  one  object  having  facets,  or  other  ornament,  affected  by  fore- 
shortening. (See  Figs.  44  and  46.) 

a.  Teach  the  representation  of  a  border  upon  a  cylindrical  object. 

Study  an  object  having  such  a  border.  Review  Development  to 
recall  division  of  cylindrical  .•surfaces.  Study  Fig.  44. 

b.  Sketch  a  simple  object  like  a 'napkin  ring,   mug,  or  collar  box. 

Add  an  ornamental  border.     (The  object  may  be  constructed  by 


OUTLINE  FOR  H1XTI1    TEAR.  25 

the  pupil  from  "oak  tag,"  and  the  drawing  made  from  that  ob- 
ject, if  preferred.) 

1.  Arrange  a  group  and  make  a  picture  of  it  on  page  33.  Select 
those  objects  only  which  are  based  on  some  type  already  drawn. 
Do  not  combine  incongruous  objects.  Try  to  arrange  a  group 
that  will  tell  a  story. 

XOTI;. — In  sketching  a  group  of  objects,  determine  first  the  entire  width  and 
height  of  tlie  group,  and  indicate  these  upon  the  page.  Notice  next  the 
widt  li  and  height  of  principal  parts,  and  indicate  these.  Sketch  the  general 
shape  of  each  object  entire.  Study  the  details,  and  represent  them.  Erase 
guide  lines.  Finish  with  a  line  expressive  of  the  character  of  the  objects 
composing  the  group. 

SUGGESTIONS. 
TJie  Hollow  Cylinder. 

1.  Study  the  actual  size  and  proportion  of  the  model,  and  compare  with 
its  apparent  shape. 

2.  Determine  the  size  of  the  drawing. 

3.  Block  out  the  cylinder,  keeping  the  proportionate  dimensions.     First 
draw  the  left  and  right  vertical  lines  indefinitely,  observing  the  proper 
distance  between  them  ;  then  draw  the  upper  and  lower  horizontal  lines. 
This  oblong  will  give  the  general  form  of  the  cylinder,  and  must  include 
the  whole  representation. 

4.  Study  the  apparent  shajx;  (an  ellipse)  of  the  foreshortened  upper  cir- 
cle, comparing  its  width  and  length  ;  then  sketch  a  horizontal  line  across 
the  oblong,  to  limit  the  space  it  is  to  occupy. 

5.  Within  this  oblong,  carefully  sketch  the  ellipse.     The  curves  of  the 
ellipses  must  not  make  angles  with  the  straight  sides,  but  must  form  a 
tangential  union  with  them. 

6.  Sketch  the  inner  circle,  which  gives  the  cylinder  its  hollow  appear- 
ance.    Although  this  inner  circle  is  really  equally  distant  in  every  part 
from  the  outer,  it  does  not  appear  so.  except  at  the  left  and  right  ends. 
At  the  front  and  back,  the  space  between  the  two  circles  is  foreshortened, 
and  more  so  at  the  back  than  at  the  front.     At  the  left  and  right  ends, 
there  is  no  foreshortening. 

7.  By  comparing  with  the  straight  horizontal  line  of  the  oblong,  ascer- 
tain the  apparent  curve  of  the  base  of  the  cylinder,   being  careful,   as 
before,  to  make  tangential  union  with  the  straight  sides. 

The  Cube  ivith  one  Face  Foreshortened. 

1.  Study  the  actual  size   and   proportions  of  the  model,  and  compare 
them  with  its  apparent  shape. 

2.  Determine  the  size  of  the  drawing. 

3.  Represent  roughly  the  width  of  the  whole  by  two  vertical  lines,  and 
the  height   of  the  whole  by   two  horizontal    lines.      This  oblong   should 
include  the  drawing  of  the  whole  object. 


26          WHITE'S  NEW  COURSE  IN  ART  INSTRUCTION. 

4.  Determine  the  position  of  the  upper  edge  of  the  front  face. 

5.  Locate  the  edge  in  the  drawing.     In  the  position  in  which  the  model 
is  studied,  the  front  face  should  be  a  square. 

6.  Study  the  appearance  of  the  foreshortened  upper  face  ;  test  its  width. 
Then  study  the  direction  of  the  receding  upper  edges  ;  sketch  these,  giving 
them  the  proper  degree  of  convergence. 

7.  Erase  incorrect  lines  ;  finish  the  drawing. 

The  Cube  with  two  Faces  Foreshortened. 

1.  Study  the  actual  size  and  proportions  of  the  model,  and  compare 
with  its  apparent  shape. 

2.  Determine  the  size  of  the  drawing. 

3.  Represent  roughly  the  width  of   the  whole  by  two   vertical  lines. 
Determine  the  highest  and  lowest  points  in  the  object,  indicate  these,  and 
compare  the  distance  between  the  highest  and  lowest  points  with  the 
greatest  distance  from  side   to  side.    The  whole  space  to  be  occupied  by 
the  drawing  has  now  been  determined. 

4.  Sketch  lightly  a  vertical  line  to  represent  the  nearest  vertical  edge 
and  determine  accurately  its  length. 

5.  Determine  and  indicate  the  position  of  the  back  corner  of  the  top 
face  ;  and  determine  the  apparent  level  of  the  left  and  right  corners  of 
the  top  face,  by  comparison  with  the  level  of  the  front  and  back  corners. 
Indicate  these  corners  on  the  vertical  lines. 

6.  Sketch  the  top  face. 

7.  Determine  the  lengths  of  the  left  and  right  edges,  by  comparison 
with  the  front  edge. 

8.  Sketch  the  lower  edges  of  the  cube. 

9.  Criticise  the  sketch,  first,  as  to  whether  the  drawing  represents  the 
object  as  seen  ;    second,  as  to  whether  the  principles  of  foreshortening 
and  convergence  are  truthfully  illustrated. 

10.  Correct  errors,  or  make  a  second  drawing  in  which  the  errors  are 
corrected;  then  finish. 


Encourage  sketching  in  connection  with  work  in  Language., 
History,  Geography,  and  Natural  Science. 

Show  the  pupils  examples  of  good  pictorial  art,  photographs 
of  historic  buildings  and  their  ornament,  examples  of  carved 
and  molded  enrichment,  vases,  and  other  beautiful  forms.  If  a 
museum  of  art  is  in  the  vicinity,  encourage  the  pupils  to  visit 
it  often,  and  lead  them  to  love  and  look  for  the  beautiful  in  all 
tilings. 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 

In  the  following  plates  are  given  representative  illustrations 
.selected  from  Book  VI.,  exemplifying  the  three  main  divisions  of 
I  he  subject;  viz.,  Geometric  Drawing,  Decorative  Drawing,  and 
Pictorial  Drawing. 


J7 


ILLUSTRATIONS    OF    GEOMETRIC    PROBLEMS. 


28 


ILLUSTRATIONS    OF    WORKING    DRAWINGS. 


(viJ 


SAAAAAAAAAAA 


ILLUSTRATIONS    OF    DEVELOPMENTS. 


30 


ILLUSTRATIONS    OF    HISTORIC    ORNAMENT. 


31 


ILLUSTRATIONS    OF     BOTANICAL     DRAWING. 


(vi.) 


\  / 
/  \ 

\  7 

/  \ 

\  / 
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\  / 

/  \ 

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/  \ 

\  / 
/  \ 

\  / 

/  \ 

\  7 

/  \ 

S  7 

/  \ 

\  / 
/  \ 

\  / 
/  \ 

\  / 
/  \ 

/  \ 

\/ 


/\ 


\/ 


/\ 


ILLUSTRATIONS    OF    DESIGN-CONSTRUCTION. 

(Vi.) 


ILLUSTRATIONS    OF    DESIGN-RADIAL    ARRANGEMENT. 


34 


Ill 

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ILLUSTRATIONS    OF    PICTORIAL     DRAWING-HALF    CYLINDER. 

.)  35 


ILLUSTRATIONS    OF    PICTORIAL    DRAWING-CYLINDER. 

36  (vi 


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. 

.-' 


ILLUSTRATIONS    OF    PICTORIAL    DRAWING-APPLIED 
DECORATION. 


37 


38          WHITE'S  NEW  COURSE  IN  ART  INSTRUCTION. 


ILLUSTRATED   DEFINITIONS 


GEOMETRIC  SOLIDS. 

A  Solid  is  space  or  magnitude  inclosed  by  surfaces ;  it  has  length,  breadth,  and 
thickness.     In  art  the  terra  may  be  applied  either  to  a  model  or  an  object. 

ihere.  A  solid  bounded  by  one  curved  surface,  every  part  of  which 
is  equidistant  from  its  center.  A  solid  formed  by  the  revolution  of  a 
circle  upon  its  diameter. 

^— ^     Hemisphere.     Half  a  sphere. 

O  Spheroid.     A  solid  nearly  spherical  in  form.     Spheroids   are  oblate  when 
flattened  at  the  poles,  like  the  earth  ;  or  prolate  when  extended  at   the 
poles,  like  a  turtle's  egg. 

Ellipsoid.     A  prolate  spheroid.     A  solid  formed  by  the  revolution  of  an   ellipse 
upon  its  axis. 

O  Ovoid.     A  solid  having  the  form  of  an  egg.      A  solid  formed  by  the  revo- 
lution of  an  oval  upon  its  axis. 

Cylinder.     A  roller-like  body,  with  flat,  circular  ends.     A  solid  formed 
by  the  revolution  of  a  rectangle  upon  one  of  its  diameters. 


Half-Cylinder.     A  solid  formed  by  dividing  a  cylinder  upon  its  axis. 

Circular  Plinth.     A   very   short    cylinder.     A   cylinder   in   which   the 

height  is  less  than  the  diameter  of  its  flat,  circular  faces. 
Cone.     A  solid  having  a  circle  for  its  base,  and  tapering  to  a  point,  or 

vertex.     A  solid  formed  by  the  revolution  of  an  isosceles   triangle 

upon  its  altitude. 
Circular  Frustum.     That  part  of  a  cone  which   remains  when  the   top 

part  is  cut  off  by  a  plane  parallel  with  its  base. 

Cube.     A  solid  bounded  by  six  equal  square  faces. 

Half-cube.     A  solid  formed  by  dividing  a  cube  upon  a  diagonal  of  one 
face.     A  half-cube  is  a  triangular  prism. 

Prism.     A  solid  whose  ends  are  similar,  equal,  and  parallel,  and  whose 
sides  are  parallelograms. 

Square  Prism.     A  prism  whose  ends  are  squares. 


ILLUSTRATED  DEFINITION^.  ^  39 

Triangular  Prism.     A  prism  whose  ends  are  triangles. 
Pentagonal  Prism.     A  prism  whose  ends  are  pentagons. 
Hexagonal  Prism.     A  prism  whose  ends  are  hexagons. 
Octagonal  Prism.     A  prism  whose  ends  are  octagons. 
Square  Plinth.     A  very  short  square  prism. 

Pyramid.  A  solid  having  one  base  bounded  by  any  number  of  straight 
lines,  and  having  the  same  number  of  triangular  faces  with  a  common 
vertex. 

Square  Pyramid.     A  pyramid  whose  base  is  a  square. 
Square  Frustum.     That  part  of  a  square  pyramid  which  remains,  when 
the  top  part  is  cut  off  by  a  plane  parallel  with  its  base. 
Triangular  Pyramid.     A  pyramid  whose  base  is  a  triangle. 
Pentagonal  Pyramid.     A  pyramid  whose  base  is  a  pentagon. 
Hexagonal  Pyramid.     A  pyramid  whose  base  is  a  hexagon. 
Octagonal  Pyramid.     A  pyramid  whose  base  is  an  octagon. 

Truncated  Solid.  That  part  of  a  cylinder,  cone,  prism,  or  pyramid,  which 
remains,  when  the  upper  part  is  cut  off  by  a  plane  at  an  oblique  angle  with  the 
base. 

DETAILS  OF  SOLIDS. 

Surface  is  space  or  magnitude  inclosed  by  lines ;  it  has  length  and  breadth,  but 
no  thickness.  In  Art,  the  outside  of  a  thing  is  considered  its  surface. 

Face.     A  part  of  a  solid  (a)  bounded  by  edges. 

Edge.  A  part  of  a  solid,  where  the  surface  abruptly  changes  its  direction  (b  b). 
A  part  of  a  solid  where  two  faces  meet. 

Outline.  The  apparent  limit  of  a  curved  surface,  or  the  line  by  which  a  figure  is 
defined. 

Corner.     A  part  of  a  solid  (c),  where  three  or  more  edges  meet. 

I     Point.     A  point  has  position  only,  without  size;  but  in  drawing  it  is 
indicated  by  a  dot,  and  represents  a  corner,  or  marks  position. 

Line.  The  boundary  of  a  face.  A  line  has  length  only  ;  but  in  drawing  it  is  indi- 
cated by  a  mark  of  the  pencil  or  crayon,  and  represents  an  edge  or  an  outline. 

A  Straight  Line  is  one  which  has  the  same  direction  throughout  its  length.  It  is 
the  shortest  distance  between  two  points. 

A  Curved  Line  is  one  which  bends  at  every  point,  and  has  no  part  straight. 

A  Broken  Line  is  one  made  up  of  very  short  straight  lines  or  of  dots. 

NOTE. —  When  the  -word  line  is  used  alone,  a  straight  line  is  meant. 

POSITIONS  OF   LINES. 

According  to  their  direction,  lines  are  horizontal,  -vertical,  or  oblique. 
A  Horizontal  Line  is  one  which  is  level. 

In  drawing,  a  line  which  extends  directly  toward  the  right  and  left  of  the  page 
is  said  to  be  horizontal.      Thus,  a  is  a  horizontal  line.  „ 


40  WHITE'S  NEW  COURSE  IN  ART  INSTRUCTION. 

A  Vertical  Line  is  one  which  is  perpendicular  to  a  horizontal. 

In  drawing,  a  line  extending  directly  toward  the  top  and  bottom  of  the 
page  is  said  to  be  vertical.      Thus,  a  is  a  vertical  line.  a 

NOTE. — Do  not  use  vertical  and  perpendicular  as  though  they  had  the  same  meaning.  A 
•vertical  line  always  points  up  and  down  ;  tut  any  line  which  forms  a  right  angle  with 
another  is  perpendicular  to  that  line,  no.  matter  what  its  direction  may  be. 

The  line  a  is  perpendicular  to  b,  although  not  a  ^>ertical  line. 

* 

An  Oblique  Line  is  one  which  is  slanting  to  the  right  or  left.  Thus,  ^  / 
a  and  b  are  oblique  lines.  "\  /* 

If  the  upper  end  of  the  line  leans  toward  the  right,  it  is  sometimes  called  a  right- 
oblique  line  ;  if  toward  the  left,  it  is  called  a  left-oblique  line. 

RELATION  OF  LINES. 

In  their  relation  to  each  other,  lines  may  be  parallel  or  at  an  angle. 
Parallel  Lines  are  such  as  are  the  same  distance  apart  throughout  their 

length. 

Lines  at  an  Angle  are  such  as  are  not  parallel. 
Angle.     The  difference  in  direction  of  two  lines,  which  meet  or  tend  to 

meet  at  a  point,  is  called  an  angle.     Thus,  a  is  an  angle. 

NOTE. —  The  angle  is  the  space  between  the  lines,  and  not  the  lines  themselves. 
Angles  are  divided  according  to  the  directions  of  their  lines  into  Right  Angles  and 

Oblique  Angles. 
A  Right  Angle  is  formed  by  one  line  meeting  another  in  such  a  way  as 

to  make  the  two  adjacent  angles  equal.      Thus,  a  and  b  are  right 

angles.     The  lines  forming   these    angles   are  perpendicular.     (See 

note  under  "Vertical  Line.") 
'Oblique  Angles.     All  angles  which    are  not  right  angles  are  oblique.     Oblique 

angles  are  either  obtuse  or  acute. 
An  Obtuse  Angle  is  one  which  is  greater  than  a  right  angle.      Thus,     ^\<± 

a  is  an  obtuse  angle. 

An  Acute  Angle  is  one  which  is  less  than  a  right  angle.      Thus,  b  is       /£ 
an  acute  angle. 

NOTE. —  The  lines  forming  a  n  angle  are  called  its  sides  ;  the  point  at  wh  ich  they  meet  is  called 
the  verte.r  of  the  angle. 

GEOMETRIC    FIGURES. 
Plane.     A  plane  is  a  surface  on  any  part  of  which  a  straight  line  may  be  drawn 

in  any  direction. 

NOTE. —  The  top  of  the  desk,  if  it  can  be  imagined  without  thickness,  may  illustrate  aplane. 
A  Geometric  or  Plane  Figure  is  a  portion  of  a  plane  limited  by  lines. 
A  Rectilinear  Figure  is  a  portion  of  a  plane  limited  by  straight  lines. 
A  Curvilinear  Figure  is  a  portion  of  a  plane  limited  by  curved  lines. 
A  Mixtilinear  Figure  is  a  portion  of  a  plane  limited  by  both  straight  and  curved 

lines. 


ILLUSTRATED  DEFINITIONS.  41 

RECTILINEAR  PLANE  FIGURES 

TRIANGLES. 

A  Triangle  is  a  plane  figure  having  three  sides  and  three  angles. 

Triangles  are  divided  into  six  classes  :  according  to  their  angles,  into  Kight- 
angled,  CM/w.rf-angled,  and  Acute-angled  Triangles  ;  according  to  relative  length 
of  their  sides,  into  Isosceles,  Equilateral,  and  Scalene  Triangles. 


A    Eight-angled    Triangle    is   one    which    has    one    right    angle. 
An  Obtuse-angled  Triangle    is    one    which    has    one    obtuse    angle. 
An    Acute-angled    Triangle    is    one   which   has    all    its   angles   acute. 
An   Isosceles    Triangle   is    one   which    has    two  of   its    sides  equal. 
An  Equilateral  Triangle   is   one    which    has    all    its   sides    equal. 
A  Scalene  Triangle   is   one   which  has  no   two   of  its  sides  equal. 


ngli 

QUADRILATERALS. 
Figures  which  have  four  sides  are  called  Quadrilaterals. 

A  Rectangle    is    a    quadrilateral    whose    angles    are    all    right    angles. 

A  Square    is   a    rectangle    whose   sides    are   equal. 

A  rectangle  whose  adjacent  sides  are  unequal  is  often  called  an  Oblong. 


A  Rhombus  is  a  quadrilateral  whose  sides  are  equal ;  two  of  its  opposite        /       ~7 

angles   being   acute,   and   the    other  two  obtuse.     A  Diamond  is  a     /_ / 

Rhombus. 

A  Rhomboid    is   a    quadrilateral    whose    angles  are  like  those   of   a 
Rhombus,  but  only  its  opposite  sides  are  equal. 

A    Trapezium    is   a    quadrilateral   no    two    of    whose    side    are    parallel. 

POLYGONS. 

A  Polygon  is  a  rectilinear  figure  having  more  than  four  sides.  When  all  the  sides 
and  angles  of  a  polygon  are  equal,  it  is  a  regular  polygon  ;  when  the  sides  or 
angles  are  unequal,  it  is  called  an  irregular  polygon.  Geometrically,  triangles 
and  quadrilaterals  are  frequently  classed  as  polygons,  since  they  all  have  many 
principles  in  common. 

OA  Regular  Pentagon  is  a  polygon  having  five  equal  sides  and  five  equal 
angles. 

A  Regular  Hexagon  is  a  polygon  having   six   equal  sides   and    six    equal 
angles. 

A  Regular  Octagon  is  a  polygon   having  eight  equal  sides  and  eight  equal 
angles. 


o 
o 


42  WHITE'S  NEW  COURSE  IN  ART  INSTRUCTION. 

/     \  A  Polygon  having  7  sides  is  called  a  Heptagon. 
"         "  "      9     "     "      "      "  Nonagon. 

"    10     "     "      "      "  Decagon. 
"    II      "      "       "       "  Undecagon. 
"    12     "     "      "     "  Dodecagon. 

CURVILINEAR  PLANE  FIGURES. 

A  Circle  is  a  plane  figure  bounded  by  a  curved  line,  every  part  of  which  is 
equally  distant  from  a  point  within  called  its  center. 

An  Ellipse  is  a  plane  figure,  bounded  by  a  regular  curve,  every 
point  in  the  outline  of  which  is  at  the  same  combined  distance 
from  the  foci. 

An  Oval  is  a  plane  figure  similar  in  shape  to  the  longitudinal  section 
of  an  egg. 

\\  A  Crescent  is  a  plane  figure  bounded  by  two  curved  lines,  so  arranged  as  to 
J  J      resemble  the  shape  of  the  new  moon. 

OA  Lens  is  a  symmetrical  plane  figure  bounded  by  two  curved  lines,  curving  in 
opposite  directions. 
A  Trefoil  is  an  ornamental  figure  of  three  foils  or  leaves,  resembling  a 

clover-leaf. 

A  Quatrefoil  is  an  ornamental  figure  of  four  foils  or  leaves,  resembling 
the  petals  of  a  flower. 

MIXTILINEAR    PLANE    FIGURES. 

Of  these  there  are,  of  course,  an  infinite  number.     They  are  used  in  art  largely  as 
inclosing  forms  for  designs.    The  figures  given  below  (a,btc,d,e,f}  illustrate  these. 

^ — . 

6 


c 


DETAILS    OF    GEOMETRIC    FIGURES. 
Base.     That  part  of  a  rectilinear  figure  upon  which  it  is  supposed  to 

rest,  as  a  b.  /|\ 

Apex.     The  highest  angle  above  the  base,  as  c.  /   I      . 

Altitude.     The  perpendicular  distance  from  apex  to  base,  as  c  d. 
Axis.     Any  line  which  divides  a  symmetrical  figure  into  two  equal  and          g      f 

similar  parts,  as  c  d  ex  gh. 

Diagonal.     A  line  connecting  opposite  angles,  as  ef. 
Diameter.     A  line   connecting   the   centers  of  opposite   sides,  as  g  h. 

Diameters  are  sometimes  distinguished  as  vertical  and  horizontal, 


ILL  USTRA  TED  DEFINITIONS. 


43 


The  Circumference  of  a  circle  is  the  line  which  bounds  the  figure. 
The  Diameter  of  a  circle  is  a  straight  line  drawn  through  its  center 

between  opposite  points  in  the  circumference,  as  a  b. 
The  Radius  of  a  circle  is  the  distance  from  the  center  to  any  point 

in  the  circumference,  as  c  d. 
A  Semicircle  is  half  a  circle,  as  a  d  b, 

An  Arc  of  a  circle,  or  other  curve,  is  any  part  of  that  curve,  as  d  b  or  a  e. 
A  Chord  is  a  straight  line  connecting  the  extremities  of  an  arc,  as  a  e, 
A  Segment  is  the  space  inclosed  by  the  arc  and  its  chord. 
A  Sector  is  the  space  between  any  part  of  the  circumference  and  two  radii  of  a 

circle,  as  b  c  f. 
A  Quadrant  is  the  space  inclosed  by  one  quarter  of  the  circumference  and  two 

radii  of  the  circle,  as  d  c  b. 
Long  Diameter.     The  longest  straight  line  which  may  be  drawn 

in  an  ellipse,  as  a  b. 
Short  Diameter.     The    shortest    straight    line  which    may   be 

drawn  in  an  ellipse,  cutting  the  figure  into  two  equal  parts,  ascd. 
These  diameters  in  an  ellipse  are  always  perpendicular  and  bisect  mutually. 
Foci.     Points  in  an  ellipse  from  which  the  curve  may  be  drawn  mechanically,  as 

/,  2.     The  distance  from  c  to  /  always  equals  one  half  of  a  b. 
The  terms  long  and  short  diameter  are  sometimes  applied  to  the  axis 

and   the   line  representing  the  greatest  width  in  an  oval;  as,  long 

diameter  a  b ,  short  diameter  c  d. 

MISCELLANEOUS  TERMS. 
Alternation.     The  repetition  of  one  set  of  units  separated  by  another  set  of  units 

of  a  different  character,  in  reciprocal  succession. 
Axis  of  Symmetry.     A  line  drawn  through  the  middle  of  a  figure,  so  that  the  parts 

on  one  side  are  exactly  repeated  in  a  reverse  order  on  the  other.     The  axis  may 

be  drawn  in  any  direction,  being  governed  by  the  character  of  the  figure  ;  in 

the  ornamental  figure  next  below,  it  is  vertical. 

Bisect.     To  divide  into  equal  parts.     1 

Bisymmetrical  Design.     A  symmetrical  arrangement  in  which  one  half 

is  the  exact  reverse  of  the  other. 

Blocking  in  Lines.     Sketched  lines  which  indicate  masses. 

Border.  An  ornament  which  consists  of  a  regular  repetition  of 
ornamental  units,  along  a  line  of  indefinite  length.  The  cut 
shows  a  familiar  Greek  border,  composed  of  scrolls  or  spirals. 

Botanical  Drawing.     The  representation  of  vegetable  form. 

Center.     A  radial  design. 

Center  Line.     A  line  representing  the  center  of  a  solid. 

Cinquefoil.  An  ornamental  figure  having  five  foils  or  leaf-like 
curves,  used  for  windows,  panels,  etc. 

Circle.     In  Christian  art,  a  symbol  of  eternity. 


C'iuquefoil. 


44  WHITE'S  NEW  COURSE  IN  ART  INSTRUCTION. 

Concentric.     Having  a  common  center. 

Connecting  Line.     A  line  connecting  similar  parts  in  the  drawings 
of  two  views  of  an  object. 

and  Squares. 

Construction.     Making  or  building  :  putting  together  the  parts  of  any  figure  so  as 

-  to  give  its  peculiar  form  and  structure.  Construction  lines  are  the 
framework  upon  which  a  drawing  is  made  ;  they  determine  the 
distances,  proportions,  etc.  Construction,  as  applied  in  geometrical 
problems,  refers  to  the  measurements  and  steps  taken  in  the  solution 
of  the  problems.  The  light  lines  in  the  cut  show  a  method  of  construction  in 
erecting  a  perpendicular  at  the  end  of  a  given  line. 

Contrast.  The  result  of  a  juxtaposition  of  lines,  forms,  or  colors  of  different 
characters*. 

Contrasted  Harmony.     (See  "  Harmony  of  Color.") 

Conventionalization.  The  modifying  of  natural  forms  in  such  a  way  that  the 
principles  of  their  growth  are  retained  and  unimportant  details  omitted  or 
simplified.  A  conventional  form  is  a  form,  idealized  according  to  the  evident 
intent  of  nature. 

Cordate.     Resembling  a  heart  in  outline. 

Cross.     Two  bars  placed  transversely  upon  each  other  in  various  ways,  each  having 

its  own  name.     A  symbol  of  suffering.     Some  of  the  more  common  ones  are 

shown  in  the  illustrations. 


ft 


Dashed  Line.  A  series  of  dashes  arranged  in  line.  Invisible  edges  are  represented 
by  dashed  lines. 

Describe  a  Circle.  To  draw  with  a  compass.  The  accom- 
panying cut  shows  the  position  of  the  hand,  while  describ- 
ing a  circle  with  the  compass. 

Design.  The  plan,  combination,  or  arrangement  of  any 
construction  or  ornament  for  a  given  purpose,  whether 
constructive  or  decorative.  The  word  is  often  misused  to 
apply  merely  to  ornamental  subjects. 

Detail.  A  selected  part  of  a  figure  or  object,  usually  drawn  on  a  larger  scale  than 
is  convenient  for  the  whole  composition. 

Develop.     To  represent  on  a  plane  the  entire  surface  of  a  figure. 

Development.  The  entire  surface  of  any  solid  or  object  when  laid  out 
upon  one  plane,  as  in  the  cut,  which  shows  the  development  of  a 
square  prism.  (See  "  Hat.") 

Diaper.  A  panel  or  flat  recessed  surface  covered  with  wrought  work  in  low  relief. 
This  form  of  decoration  was  used  greatly  by  the  Moorish  artists  for  the  enrich- 
ment of  the  walls  of  the  Alhambra.  An  all-over  pattern. 


ILLUSTRATED  DEFINITIONS.  45 

Distribution.     An  orderly  disposition  of  the  units  in  the  field  of  the  design. 
Dot-and-dash  Line.     A  series  of  dots  and  dashes  alternated  in  line.     Center  lines 
are  drawn  with  dot-and-dash  lines. 

Dotted  Line.     A  series  of  dots,  or  very  short  dashes,  arranged  in  line.     Connect- 
ing lines  are  drawn  as  dotted  lines. 

Elementary  Design.     A  pleasing  arrangement  of  units  within  a  given  form,  based 
on  certain  recognized  principles. 

Elevation.     A  drawing  giving  the  actual  form  and  proportions  of 
an  object,  as  produced  on  one  or  more  vertical  planes. 

Elevation  is  opposed  to  Plan,  which  gives  the  actual  form  and 
proportion  of  an  object  as  produced  on  a  horizontal  plane.  Thus, 
in  the  three  figures  given,  the  first  shows  the  appearance  of  a 
prism,  the  plan  shows  the  actual  form  and  proportion  of  the 
base  of  the  prism,  and  the  elevation  gives  the  form  and  proportion 
of  one  of  the  sides  of  the  prism.  Some  objects  require  several  different  eleva- 
tions, to  show  all  the  facts  of  form  of  all  their  details. 

Field.     That  portion  of  any  surface  to  be  occupied  by  the  design. 

Flat.     A  development  of  the  whole  of  an  object  ;  e.  g.,  the  flat  of  a  paper  wind- 
mill is  like  a  square  with  its  diagonals. 

Flat  Ornament.     An  enrichment  of  a  surface  by  means  of  contrast  obtained  by 
colors,  or  the  use  of  light  and  dark. 

Fret.     An  ornament  consisting  of  a  series  of  lines  or  bands  called  fillets,  which 
form  a  succession  of   angles,  usually  right  angles,  and  are   some- 
times interlaced. 

Full  Line.     A  continuous  line.      Outlines  and   visible  edges   are   always   drawn 
with  full  lines. 

Geometric  Drawing.     The  drawing  of  lines,  surfaces,  and  solids  with  instruments. 

Ground.     That  upon  which  the  object  rests.     The  field  of  a  design. 

Half-Tint.     The  darkening  or  shading  of  a  surface,  by  means  of  a  succession  of 

parallel  and  equidistant  lines,  which  may  be  either  vertical,  hori-     —^^^^ 

zontal  or  oblique. 
Harmony.     Such  an  adaptation  of  the  parts  of  a  design  to  each  other,  that   they 

form  a  complete  and  pleasing  whole. 
Harmony  of  Color.     A  pleasing  arrangement  of  colors.     There  are  six  principal 

Harmonies : 

1.  Neutral.     Composed  of   black,    white,   and   gray.      (Really  a  dominant 

harmony.) 

2.  Contrasted.     Composed  of  one  color  with  neutrals. 

3.  Dominant.     Composed  of  tones  of  color  in  one  scale. 

4.  Complementary.     Composed  of  colors  which,  when  mingled,  will  produce 

white  or  gray. 

5.  Analogous.     Composed  of  colors  closely  related  in  the  spectrum. 

6.  Perfected.     Usually  composed  of  analogous  or  dominant  combinations, 
with  color  complementary  to  the  prevailing  tone. 

Neutral  colors  may  be  added  to  all  of  these  combinations. 


46  WHITE'S  NEW  COURSE  IN  ART  INSTRUCTION. 

Hue.     Any  color  found  in  the  spectrum,  except  the  six  standard  colors. 
Mass.     General  shape,  regardless  of  detail. 

Neutral  Color.     A  term  used  in  decorative  arts,  to  denote  a  color  which  has  little 

or  no  effect  upon  the  hue  of  a  juxtaposed  color. 
The  Neutral  Colors  are  white,  gray,  and  black. 

Ornament.  Any  decoration  or  enrichment  of  form,  color,  or  construction, 
intended  to  beautify  the  object  ornamented. 

Overlap.     To  lie  over  or  upon.     When  a  part  of  an  orna- 
ment seems    to  lie    upon  another    part,    it    is    said    to 

overlap.  Overlap. 

Perspective.  The  art  of  representing  an  object  exactly  as  it  appears  to  the  eye 
from  one  fixed  point  of  view.  The  first  cut  under  "  Elevation  "  is  a  drawing  in 
perspective  of  the  prism  represented. 

Fetal.     One  of  the  leaf-like  parts  of  the  corolla  of  a  flower. 

Pictorial  Drawing.  A  representation  of  the  appearance  of  an  object  or  group,  as 
seen  from  one  point  of  view. 

Plan.     A  top  view.     (See  "  Elevation.") 

Plinth.  A  square  member  forming  the  lowest  part  of  the  base  of  a  column  ; 
hence,  any  flat  rectangular  block,  such  as  might  be  cut  from  a  plank. 

Proportional  Measurement.  A  method  of  obtaining  relative  distances  upon  dis- 
tant objects,  by  means  of  a  pencil  or  similar  implement. 

Quadrisect.     To  divide  into  four  equal  parts. 

Quality  of  a  Color.  The  character  of  a  color  relatively  considered.  The  quality 
of  a  color  is  said  to  be  -warm,  when  it  approaches  in  appearance  any  of  the 
colors  in  the  red  part  of  the  spectrum  ;  or  cold,  when  it  approaches  in  appear- 
ance any  of  the  colors  in  the  blue  part  of  the  spectrum.  Colors  acquire 
certain  qualities  by  juxtaposition. 

Quatrefoil.  An  ornament  having  four  foils  or  lobes,  used  in  panels, 
windows,  etc.  A  symbol  of  the  Evangelists. 

Radiation.  A  method  of  arrangement  in  ornamental  design,  in 
which  the  parts  diverge  from  a  point.  The  rosette  shown  in  the 
figure  below  is  an  example  of  radiation  from  a  center.  The 
horse-chestnut  leaflets  radiate  from  a  point  not  in  the  center. 

Repetition.  A  method  of  arrangement  in  which  a  number  of  similar  forms  or 
objects  are  placed  in  a  row,  or  arranged  round  a  center. 

Representation.  Delineation  by  means  of  lines,  light  and  shade,  or  color.  All 
drawing  is  representation. 

Rhythm.  The  frequent  recurrence  of  some  characteristic  in  the  various  parts  of 
a  design,  without  being  obtrusive. 

Rosette.     A  radiating  ornament  made  of  petal-like  parts. 

Scale  of  Color.     The  entire  range  of  tones,  from  white,  through  its 
tints,  a  standard  or  hue,  and  its  shades,  to  black. 


ILLUSTRATED  DEFINITIONS.  47 

Spectrum.  A  band  of  colors,  produced  by  allowing  rays  of  sunlight  to  pass 
through  a  triangular  prism  of  glass,  or  other  refracting  medium.  The 
spectrum  contains  red,  orange,  yellow,  green,  blue,  and  violet,  usually  called 
the  standard,  or  primary,  colors,  and  an  indeterminate  number  of  intermediate 
hues. 

Standard  Color.  One  of  the  six  primary  colors  of  the  spectrum.  A  standard 
pigment  color  is  one  which  imitates  one  of  these,  as  closely  as  possible. 

Symmetry.  The  result  of  a  proper  disposition  and  proportion  of  the  parts  of  a 
design,  forming  a  complete  whole  or  unit. 

Tangent.     Touching  at  a  single   point.      A   line   touching  a   curve  which,  even 

when  produced,  does  not  intersect  it. 

Tint.     A  color  produced  by  adding  light,  or  white,  to  a  standard  or  hue. 
Tone.     One  color  in  a  scale  of  colors.      Tone  is  also  used  to  describe  the  general 

effect  produced  by  any  combination  of  colors. 
Trefoil.     An  ornament  of    three   foils   or   lobes,    used   for  panels, 

windows,  etc.     A  symbol  of  the  Trinity. 
Trisect.     To  divide  into  three  equal  parts. 

Unit  of  Design.     One  of  the  distinct  fractions,  or  parts,  of  a  design, 
repeated  uniformly  to  complete  the  figure.     One  of  the  spirals  in 
the  design  under  "  Border"  is  the  unit  of  design,  which,  repeated,  makes  the 
completed  figure  shown. 

Unity.  Such  a  combination  of  parts  as  to  constitute  a  complete  and  pleasing 
whole.  The  result  of  uniformity  in  the  character  of  the  main  lines  or  units  in 
a  design. 

Value.  In  color,  the  power  or  force  of  a  color  upon  the  eye.  The  value  of  a 
color  is  directly  proportional  to  the  amount  of  light  it  reflects. 

Variety.  The  result  of  variation,  or  difference,  in  the  details  of  a  design,  without 
affecting  its  unity. 

View.  A  term  used  to  indicate  the  stand-point  of  the  observer,  when  making  a 
drawing  of  an  object,  as  the  end  view,  when  only  the  end  is  seen. 

Working  Drawings.  Drawings  which  represent  facts  of  form.  Drawings  from 
which  objects  may  be  accurately  made  or  constructed.  In  making  a  working 
drawing,  the  eye  is  supposed  to  be  opposite  each  part  of  the  object  represented. 


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